Saanvi Talwar – saanvi2369@gmail.com
September 2nd, 2025
Edited by the YNPS Publications team.
Abstract
Digital technology is a fundamental aspect of adolescence, providing unparalleled opportunities for learning, socialization, and entertainment. Excessive exposure to online media, video games, and cellular phones has been increasingly described as potentially addictive, generating behavioral characteristics that are similar to classical substance use addictions. They have been explained by compulsive use, loss of control, obsession with the online world, and learning, social, and emotional deficiency. Their neurobiology was first disclosed by neuroimaging research that discovered internet addiction as a quantifiable disorder of brain structure and function, and also as a psychological disorder. Structural MRI studies have found gray matter volume reductions in regions of the prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and temporal lobes that are essential for decision-making, cognitive flexibility, and control of behavior. Functional neuroimaging, including task and resting-state fMRI, EEG, and fNIRS, reveals dysregulated activation and disrupted connectivity of frontostriatal and frontolimbic circuits with executive control, reward processing, and emotion regulation deficits. These neurobiological alterations are approximately concurrent with impulsivity, low inhibitory control, heightened reward sensitivity, and compulsivity of technology use behavioral traits. Nevertheless, the literature is beset by key limitations, including the employment of small and usually male-only samples, utilization of self-report measures, and the dominance of cross-sectional designs, all of which restrict causal inference. The review synthesizes current evidence from structural and functional neuroimaging and behavioral data, critically addresses methodological concerns, and emphasizes the necessity for multimodal, longitudinal investigation, an urgent need. Such research is pertinent to the clarification of causal processes, the informing of clinical practice, and the creation of evidence-based prevention programs to reverse the deleterious consequences of digital overindulgence in adolescents.
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Significance
Digital technology has penetrated youth development tissue to a profound extent, making access to educational material, entertainment, and social connections to an unprecedented degree. Social media websites, smartphones, and video games are core subjects to daily life for youth these days, with both pathways to potential linkage as well as vulnerability to over-indulgence. While these technologies hold the promise of augmenting social communication, creativity, and cognition, more and more evidence exists that excessive use of them can generate addictive habits. These habits have been described as “digital addiction” or “behavioral addiction,” and they share very much in common with substance-related disorders, including compulsive behavior, impaired executive function, persistence despite negative consequences, and lack of self-control. Neuroimaging studies showing structural reductions in prefrontal cortex (PFC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and middle frontal gyrus (MFG)—all areas of importance in planning, decision-making, and inhibitory control—empirically validate these findings. Further, functional studies show that connectivity and activation in limbic structures like the nucleus accumbens and amygdala are disrupted, reflecting the dysregulation of reward processing and emotion regulation in adolescents with Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) or problematic smartphone use (PSU). Digital addiction is the result of measurable neurodevelopmental change and not the result of bad habits or lifestyle choice because these neurochanges are consistent with behavioral patterns of increased impulsivity, attentional difficulties, and hypersensitivity to reward cues. The DSM-5 designation of IGD as one of the conditions needing further research, and the ICD-11 diagnosis of gaming disorder, reflect growing awareness that digital addiction is a serious mental health disorder with neurocognitive impact on the adolescent brain, a period of ongoing development of prefrontal and limbic circuits responsible for self-regulation, social cognition, and reward processing.
1.2 Rationale and Research Objective
Despite growing consciousness of its clinical and social significance, the neurobiological foundation of adolescent digital addiction remains poorly understood. Published studies have enormous methodological variability regarding neuroimaging techniques, task paradigms, measures of behavioral evaluation, and demographic samples, preventing comparison and integration directly across studies. A cross-sectional study design is employed in most studies, which rules out making a conclusion as to whether neural changes are an effect or a cause of hyper-digital behavior. In addition, some studies employ self-report scales such as the Young Internet Addiction Scale (YIAS), Internet Addiction Test (IAT), or Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS) that are subjective and do not
always capture the nuances of behavioral inclinations towards digital excess. Sample characteristics also restrict generalizability as many studies sample small subgroups, often males, and do not capture heterogeneity among adolescents. The present review tries to transcend these restrictions by meta-analyzing structural and functional neuroimaging data related to IGD, PSU, and general digital addiction in adolescents. The review specifically targets structural differences in gray and white matter engaged in executive control and reward processing, functional abnormalities observed on cognitive tasks and rest, and neural change-behavior correlations with behavioral measures of impulsivity, self-regulation, and sensitivity to reward. In addition, the article critically evaluates methodological limitations that can influence interpretation with a perspective towards providing an integrative framework for the neurocognitive predictors of adolescent digital addiction. By integrating neurobiological and behavioral findings, the review identifies areas of ignorance at this time, postulates directions for future research, and highlights the promise for informing prevention and intervention to target the neural and cognitive mechanisms underlying compulsive internet use.
2. Techniques
2.1 Literature Search Approach
Systematic searching within various databases, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and PMC, was conducted systematically for the most suitable studies on adolescent digital addiction. The studies were limited from 2010 to 2024 to include recent advances in behavior testing and neuroimaging techniques. The keywords utilized were “Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD),” “problematic smartphone use (PSU),” “digital addiction,” “adolescents,” “executive function,” “reward processing,” “gray matter volume,” and the neuroimaging tools of “fMRI,” “rsfMRI,” “EEG,” and “fNIRS,” etc. Initial screening involved screening of titles and abstracts in order to identify studies that looked at structural or functional brain changes associated with overengagement in digital activities, followed by full-text evaluation to provide rich information regarding sample characteristics, neuroimaging methods, cognitive and affective behavioral assessments, and correlations between neural measures and psychological ratings available. Only those studies that had reported empirical neurobiological information, behavioral assessment findings, or both were included to have an integrated view of the neural and cognitive processes underlying adolescent digital addiction. This approach ensured that the studies included offered a multidimensional perspective, combining structural, functional, and connectivity analysis with behavioral correlations, an aspect highly relevant to constructing a general and precise picture of the condition (Li et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Weng et al., 2013; Pan et al., 2018).
2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Research was included if participants were adolescents or young adults aged 12-25 years and had been evaluated for digital addiction using standardized, cross-culturally adapted measurements such as the Young’s Internet Addiction Scale (YIAS), Internet Addiction Test (IAT), Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS), the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function–Second Edition (BRIEF 2), or the Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX). Only studies that employed structural or functional neuroimaging techniques—MRI, fMRI, rsfMRI, EEG, or fNIRS—were included, thereby warranting the investigation of neural morphology, functional connectivity, or activation patterns with respect to overuse of digital media. Exclusion criteria were studies with only adult samples, without neuroimaging data, and without behavioral measures of cognition, emotion, or reward sensitivity. Case reports, non-peer-reviewed manuscripts, and studies that only measured psychiatric comorbidities without quantifying digital addiction were also excluded. By such inclusion-exclusion criteria, the review combined only quality, relevance-pertinent studies with rich neurobiological and behavioral information, thereby increasing confidence in the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the outcomes to the adolescent population (Wee et al., 2014; Takeuchi et al., 2018).
2.3 Extraction and Synthesis of Data
To report on participant characteristics, neuroimaging modality, behavior-assessment tools, targeted neural areas, primary findings, and methodological limitations, data were meticulously abstracted from each included study. Structural outcomes contrasted gray and white matter volume, cortical thickness, and structural integrity measures, while functional outcomes measured task-based activation, resting-state connectivity, and event-related potentials (ERPs). Behavioral measures tested executive function, inhibitory control, working memory, impulsivity, reward sensitivity, and self-regulation. Methodological limitations such as small subject numbers, cross-sectional designs, male-only groups, and reliance on self-report measures were systematically recorded to evaluate generalizability and reliability. Cross-study integration of findings revealed converging profiles of prefrontal dysregulation, striatal and limbic reward system dysfunction, and executive function deficits, uncovering a common neurobiological model for the integration of structural and functional brain changes and behavioral manifestations of digital addiction in youth (Li et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Han et al., 2018). This convergent approach enables an extensive understanding of the interaction between changes in the brain and cognitive control, emotional regulation, and compulsive use of digital media, with implications for longitudinal studies and future intervention.
3. Results
3.1 Structural Neuroimaging Results
Structural neuroimaging studies repeatedly show that adolescents with IGD, PSU, and digital addiction exhibit significant reductions in gray matter volume (GMV) across various cortical and subcortical regions. These include the prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, middle frontal gyrus, temporal lobes, and cerebellum, highlighting the structural basis of impaired executive control, decision-making, and motor coordination (Weng et al., 2013; Takeuchi et al., 2018; Pan et al., 2018).
High-scoring teenagers on the Internet Addiction Test have decreased GMV in bilateral postcentral and precentral gyri, left posterior midcingulate cortex, and right middle frontal gyrus than in low-scoring individuals, suggesting that cognitive control and fine motor skills impairment are directly linked to brain structure changes (Pan et al., 2018). Problematic mobile phone users possess diminished caudate volume that is negatively correlated with impulsivity behavior and device overuse severity, a pointer to the involvement of striatal regions in reward-based compulsive behavior (Yoo et al., 2021). In a conflicting report, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies show prefrontal hyperactivation during working memory and inhibitory control tasks among heavy media multitaskers, pointing towards compensatory neural compensation for maintenance despite structural deficiency (Li et al., 2021). Combined, these findings determine that structural remapping in prefrontal and subcortical regions is a crucial neurobiological indicator of adolescent digital addiction with direct correlation to decreased executive function, enhanced reward sensitivity, and compromised cognitive flexibility.
3.2 Functional Neuroimaging Findings
Functional neuroimaging studies provide converging evidence that digitally addicted adolescents experience global dysregulation across prefrontal and limbic networks in the form of abnormal activation and impaired connectivity that undermines cognitive control and emotional regulation. Task.fMRI paradigms based on Go/No-Go, Stroop, and n-back also replicate across studies hyperactivation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), middle frontal gyrus (MFG), and precuneus, which is a marker of compensatory recruitment to avoid deficits in inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility (Li et al., 2020; Luo et al., 2021). EEG studies show reduced feedback-related negativity (FRN) following rewarding stimuli, reflecting reduced reward sensitivity and defective adaptive reinforcement learning in IGD adolescents (Li et al., 2020). During fNIRS tests of executive functions, heavy media multitaskers show increased BA9 prefrontal activation and increased neural recruitment to maintain performance levels comparable to peers with lower levels of digital engagement (Li et al., 2021). Depending on the degree of PSU and reduced self-control, resting-state fMRI showed reduced connectivity between the right inferior frontal gyrus and bilateral parahippocampal gyrus, left amygdala, and right hippocampus, suggesting that limbic regions also exhibit functional impairments (Pyeon et al., 2021). Overall, these findings suggest that functional impairments upset the balance of reward processing, emotion regulation, and cognitive control, laying the neural groundwork for compulsive digital behavior in teenagers.
3.3 Resting-State Functional Connectivity
Resting-state fMRI studies reveal that digitally addicted adolescents show serious disruptions of intrinsic neural connectivity between large-scale networks, such as reductions of inter-hemispheric connectivity within the right fronto-parietal network and disrupted connectivity between the salience network (SN) and default mode network (DMN), and aberrant intra-hemispheric connectivity within
left fronto-parietal regions (Wang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). Reduced prefrontal–limbic connectivity compromises top-down regulation of reward- and emotion-processing circuits, causing impulsive choice, attentional biases, and compulsive internet use. While some studies have found compensatory increases in connectivity between temporal and limbic regions, network-level dysfunction that impacts cognitive control, emotion regulation, and reward processing simultaneously appears to be insufficient to compensate for executive control deficit. Therefore, resting-state research offers compelling evidence that adolescent digital addiction entails the disruption of extensive networks, connecting this disruption to patterns of excessive use, increased impulsivity, and diminished self-regulation.
3.4 Methodological Shortcomings
In the literature reviewed here, methodological limitations are ubiquitous and warrant comment in making conclusions. Most studies have small sample sizes, often cohorts of men, and cross-sectional designs, limiting statistical power, generalizability, and causality (Wee et al., 2014; Weng et al., 2013). Heterogeneity of imaging modalities, task paradigms, and behavioral measures renders it difficult to make direct comparisons between studies, whereas uncontrolled confounding variables introduce biases. Relatively few studies measure longitudinal change or neuroplasticity following intervention, with residual uncertainties regarding the possibility of recovery functionally or structurally. In addition, self-reported screen time compared to objective device logs introduces measurement error that could reduce the reliability of correlations between neural and behavioral measures. Despite these limitations, convergent evidence from structural, functional, and connectivity analyses provides a robust neurobiological explanation of adolescent digital addiction that underscores the necessity for multimodal and longitudinal research to determine causal pathways and inform specific interventions.
4. Discussion
4.1 Neural Mechanisms of Digital Addiction
Growing evidence indicates that adolescent digital addiction is due to ubiquitous dysregulation within frontostriatal and frontolimbic circuits, which together govern executive control, reward processing, and emotional regulation. Structural deficits in regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), middle frontal gyrus, precentral and postcentral gyri disrupt inhibitory control, working memory, decision-making, and motor coordination and supply a neural basis for compulsive and impulsive action (Han et al., 2018; Li et al., 2020). Functional neuroimaging reveals hyperactivation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), precuneus, and limbic areas, indicating heightened cognitive load, disrupted error monitoring, and reward-based impulsivity that can perpetuate frequent use of online games, social media, and other digital media. Resting-state connectivity analysis reveals reduced prefrontal-limbic network integration and implicates blunted top-down regulation of reward
and emotional circuits, which most likely sustains compulsive use of digital technologies despite negative consequences. Behavioral features—such as increased impulsivity, sensation seeking, attention deficits, and a decrement in executive functioning—reflect these modifications in the brain and imply that structural and functional changes correlate strongly with behavioral, cognitive, and emotional deficits. Notably, prefrontal hyperactivation within the results of fNIRS has been theorized to be a compensatory mechanism by which the brain engages extra neural resources in order to facilitate cognitive processing despite structural inefficiency, indicating that adolescent neural circuits are partially plastic but vulnerable to incessant digital excess (Li et al., 2021). Taken together, these findings reflect a complex, integrative neurocognitive system that underlies digital addiction, where structural susceptibility, functional dysregulation, and compensatory neural function all intersect to shape maladaptive behavior.
4.2 Clinical and Educational Implications
Understanding the neurocognitive mechanisms of teenage digital addiction has direct implications for clinical intervention and educational remediation. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), neurofeedback, and executive function training can correct impaired prefrontal-limbic loops to restore inhibitory control, attentional regulation, and emotional resilience, enhance working memory and goal-directed action, and enhance resistance to temptation (Han et al., 2018). Parents and teachers must be aware that excessive use of digital media may manifest as attention deficits, learning issues, or emotional dysregulation, and hence, preventive steps should be taken to reduce screen time and encourage balanced usage of technology. Early detection of neural and behavioral indicators—i.e., reduced prefrontal gray matter volume, altered resting-state connectivity, or impaired executive functioning—can perhaps allow directed preventive interventions against full-blown digital addiction to develop. Promoting offline activities, including physical activity, social engagement, and mental stimulation, is essential for supporting neurodevelopment and reversing chronic digital overuse neural effects. These results further legitimize the need to integrate neuroscientific knowledge into educational policy-making, to prioritize the development of curricula and behavioral norms that promote sound use of digital media, self-regulation, and reduce compulsive behavior initiation during critical adolescent neurodevelopmental windows.
4.3 Future Directions
Multimodal longitudinal design studies integrating structural MRI, task-based and resting-state fMRI, EEG, and fNIRS are necessary to untangle the causal links between neurobiological changes and problematic digital usage. Validity of results and reproducibility will be supported by complementing validated self-report surveys with objective measures of screen time and device usage. Expanding studies to include samples that differ in gender, age, cultural, and socio-economic backgrounds will increase generalizability, while examinations of comorbidities such as ADHD, depression, or anxiety can specify the degree to which such disorders moderate behavioral and neural results. Experimental and intervention research must disentangle the differential roles of cognitive, emotional, and reward processing in digital addiction development and upkeep, while neural plasticity studies can provide theory for the effectiveness of recovery following behavioral, therapeutic, or digital restriction interventions. By integrating behavioral assessment with structural and functional neuroimaging data, researchers will be able to map dynamic interactions between neural circuits, cognitive development, and emotional regulation and provide findings that guide evidence-based prevention programs and tailored treatment approaches. Using such approaches, future studies can move beyond cross-sectional correlations to establish causality, define early biomarkers of risk, and create interventions that optimize adolescent neurodevelopment and buffer the negative consequences of excessive digital engagement.
5. Conclusion
Teen digital addiction is supported by convergent and strong evidence of structural and functional brain alterations. These changes occur in various areas, including the prefrontal, orbitofrontal, temporal, parietal, and limbic regions, which collectively control executive function, reward processing, emotional regulation, and decision-making. Gray matter volume loss of structure, altered cortical thickness, and impairment of white matter integrity are strongly associated with impairments in goal-directed behavior, attentional focus, working memory, and inhibitory control, which are manifested behaviorally as impulsivity, decreased self-regulation, and compulsive digital media use. Functionally, hyperactivation during cognitive tasks and blunted reward signal sensitivity suggest that impaired adolescents use more neural effort to maintain performance on executive function–dependent tasks, reflecting inefficiency as well as compensatory adaptation in prefrontal-limbic networks. These findings underscore the importance of early identification and targeted treatment with cognitive-behavioral therapy, neurofeedback, and systematic executive function training to offset cognitive and affective deficits and reduce risk for entrenchment of maladaptive behavior. In addition to clinical use, knowledge of the neurobiological basis of digital addiction can be used to inform educational practices, assist parents in monitoring and regulating screen time, and underpin policy guidelines for ensuring balanced, developmentally appropriate technology use. More importantly, longitudinal, multimodal research is needed to illuminate causal mechanisms, determine the potential for recovery of the nervous system following behavioral or therapeutic intervention, and refine diagnostic criteria, ultimately to yield an integrated, evidence-based rationale for prevention and treatment of digital addiction in adolescent populations and for supporting maximum neurodevelopment in the context of ubiquitous digital exposure.
6. Acknowledgements
The writer is also keen on expressing their sincere appreciation to researchers whose early work explained the intricate connection between stress and working memory in adolescents. Acknowledgement is also due to colleagues and mentors for useful comments and criticisms that shaped this review.
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